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; 44 ( 5 ): 459 – 468 . 20. Mao , J . Opioid-induced abnormal pain sensitivity: implications in clinical opioid therapy . Pain. 2002 ; 100 : 213 – 217 . 21. Glass LS . Occupational Medicine Practice Guidelines, 2nd Ed. Beverly Farms, Mass : American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, OEM Press ; 2004 . 22. Harden RN , et al . Prospective examination of pain-related and psychological predictors of CRPS-like phenomena following total knee arthroplasty: a preliminary study . Pain. 2003 ; 106 : 393 – 400 . 23. Zachariae L
direction of higher risk in parentheses where appropriate) 39 , 40 , 41 : ▪ Demographics: age (older); education (limited); work experience (less) ▪ Workplace factors: certain industries (high physical demand); firm size (smaller) ▪ Health factors: baseline health (poor); past surgeries (multiple); back injury; pain (acute and/or chronic); opioid use (current); delay between injury and first medical treatment (greater) ▪ Compensation factors: prior WC or disability claims (worker or significant other); prior sick leave ▪ Self-rated functional status (poor
. Psychological aspects. A series of 104 posttraumatic cases of reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Acta Orthop Belg . 1999 Mar ; 65 ( 1 ): 86 – 90 . 45. Dersh J , Gatchel RJ , Polatin P , et al : Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in patients with chronic work-related musculoskeletal pain disability . J Occup Environ Med . 2002 ; 44 : 459 – 68 . 46. Mao J : Opioid-induced abnormal pain sensitivity: implications in clinical opioid therapy . Pain . 2002 ; 100 : 213 – 217 . 47. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine : Pain, suffering
selection depends on the severity and duration of symptoms and disability. Treatment will more likely be successful if it is started early and conforms to evidence-based treatment guidelines. Medication treatment may include bisphosphonates, corticosteroids, anti-inflammatory drugs, antidepressants, vasodilators, anti-spasm medications, and anticonvulsants. Membrane stabilizers or medications that suppress the nervous system's sensitization or sympathetic activity, including alpha-1 adrenoceptor antagonists (also known as alpha-blockers), may be used. Opioids should be
