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D.C. Turk, J.P. Robinson, J.D. Loeser, E. Covington, and P. Lippe, “Pain,” in L. Cocchiarella and G.B.J. Andersson, eds., Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment, 5th ed. (Chicago, Illinois: AMA Press, 2001): 565-591.

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L. Cocchiarella and G.B.J. Andersson, eds., Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment, 5th ed. (Chicago, Illinois: AMA Press, 2001).

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L. Cocchiarella, S.J. Lord, D.C. Turk, and J.P. Robinson, “Pain,” in L. Cocchiarella and S.J. Lord, eds., Master the AMA Guides Fifth (Chicago: AMA Press, 2001): 277-325; J.P. Robinson, D.C. Turk, and J.D. Loeser, “Pain Evaluation: Fifth Edition Approaches,” AMA Guides Newsletter, (January/February, 2002): 1-5, 9-11.

L. Cocchiarella, S.J. Lord, D.C. Turk, and J.P. Robinson, “Pain,” in L. Cocchiarella and S.J. Lord, eds., Master the AMA Guides Fifth (Chicago: AMA Press, 2001): 277-325; J.P. Robinson, D.C. Turk, and J.D. Loeser, “Pain Evaluation: Fifth Edition Approaches,” AMA Guides Newsletter, (January/February, 2002): 1-5, 9-11.)| false
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E.A. Spieler, P.S. Barth, J.F. Burton Jr, J. Himmelstein, and L. Rudolph, “Recommendations to Guide Revision of the Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment,” JAMA 283 (2000): 519-23; R.D. Rondinelli and P.W. Duncan, “The Concepts of Impairment and Disability,” in R.D. Rondinelli and R.T. Katz, eds., Impairment Rating and Disability Evaluation (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 2000): 17-33.

E.A. Spieler, P.S. Barth, J.F. Burton Jr, J. Himmelstein, and L. Rudolph, “Recommendations to Guide Revision of the Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment,” JAMA 283 (2000): 519-23; R.D. Rondinelli and P.W. Duncan, “The Concepts of Impairment and Disability,” in R.D. Rondinelli and R.T. Katz, eds., Impairment Rating and Disability Evaluation (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 2000): 17-33.)| false
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D.G. Hunt, O.A. Zuberbier, A.J. Kozlowski, J Robinson, J Berkowitz, I.Z. Schultz, R.A. Milner, J.M. Crook, and D.C. Turk, “Reliability of the Lumbar Flexion, Lumbar Extension, and Passive Straight Leg Raise Test in Normal Populations Embedded within a Complete Physical Examination,” Spine 26 (2001): 2714-2718; J.E. Nitschke, C.L. Nattrass, P.B. Disler, M.J. Chou, and K.T. Ooi, “Reliability of the American Medical Association Guides' Model for Measuring Spinal Range of Motion,” Spine 24 (1999): 262-268; M.L. McCarthy, M.P. McAndrew, E.J. MacKenzie, A.R. Burgess, B.M. Cushing, B.J. Delateur, G.J. Jurkovich, J.A. Morris, and M.F. Swiontkowski, “Correlation Between the Measures of Impairment, According to the Modified System of the American Medical Association, and Function,” The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery: American Volume 80 (1998): 1034-42; R.D. Rondinelli, W. Dunn, K.M. Hassanein, C.A. Keesling, S.C. Meredith, T.L. Schulz, and N.J. Lawrence, “A Simulation of Hand Impairments: Effects on Upper Extremity Function and Implications toward Medical Impairment Rating and Disability Determination,” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 78 (1997): 1358-63.

D.G. Hunt, O.A. Zuberbier, A.J. Kozlowski, J Robinson, J Berkowitz, I.Z. Schultz, R.A. Milner, J.M. Crook, and D.C. Turk, “Reliability of the Lumbar Flexion, Lumbar Extension, and Passive Straight Leg Raise Test in Normal Populations Embedded within a Complete Physical Examination,” Spine 26 (2001): 2714-2718; J.E. Nitschke, C.L. Nattrass, P.B. Disler, M.J. Chou, and K.T. Ooi, “Reliability of the American Medical Association Guides' Model for Measuring Spinal Range of Motion,” Spine 24 (1999): 262-268; M.L. McCarthy, M.P. McAndrew, E.J. MacKenzie, A.R. Burgess, B.M. Cushing, B.J. Delateur, G.J. Jurkovich, J.A. Morris, and M.F. Swiontkowski, “Correlation Between the Measures of Impairment, According to the Modified System of the American Medical Association, and Function,” The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery: American Volume 80 (1998): 1034-42; R.D. Rondinelli, W. Dunn, K.M. Hassanein, C.A. Keesling, S.C. Meredith, T.L. Schulz, and N.J. Lawrence, “A Simulation of Hand Impairments: Effects on Upper Extremity Function and Implications toward Medical Impairment Rating and Disability Determination,” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 78 (1997): 1358-63.)| false
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J.P. Robinson, “Pain and Disability”, in T Jensen, P. Wilson, and A Rice, eds., Clinical Pain Management: Chronic Pain. (London: Edward Arnold Limited, 2002): 39-61.

J.P. Robinson, “Pain and Disability”, in T Jensen, P. Wilson, and A Rice, eds., Clinical Pain Management: Chronic Pain. (London: Edward Arnold Limited, 2002): 39-61.)| false
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M. Osterweis, A. Kleinman, and D. Mechanic D, eds. Pain and Disability (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1987).

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Rating Permanent Impairment [Provider Bulletin 02-12]. (Olympia, Washington: Health Services Analysis Section, Department of Labor and Industries, 2002).

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H. Fabrega, Evolution of Sickness and Healing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

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M.I. Ranavaya and R.D. Rondinelli, “The Major U.S. Disability and Compensation Systems: Origins and Historical Overview,” in R.D. Rondinelli and R.T. Katz, eds., Impairment Rating and Disability Evaluation (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 2000): 3-16.

M.I. Ranavaya and R.D. Rondinelli, “The Major U.S. Disability and Compensation Systems: Origins and Historical Overview,” in R.D. Rondinelli and R.T. Katz, eds., Impairment Rating and Disability Evaluation (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 2000): 3-16.)| false
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C.A. Williams, An International Comparison of Workers' Compensation (Boston: Kluwer, 1991); G.A. Ritter, Social Welfare in Germany and Britain (New York: Berg, 1983).

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Social Security Administration Office of Research, Evaluation and Statistics. Social Security Programs throughout the World [SSA Publication No. 13-11805] (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1999).

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Disability Evaluation under Social Security (SSA Pub. No. 64=039, ICN 468600, January, 2003).

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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

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Committee on Medical Rating of Physical Impairment, “A Guide to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment of the Extremities and Back,” JAMA 167 (1958).

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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

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World Health Organization. International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001); See Robinson, supra note 7.

World Health Organization. International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001); See Robinson, supra note 7.)| false
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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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See Osterweis et. al., supra note 8

See Osterweis et. al., supra note 8)| false
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J.P. Robinson, “Evaluation of Function and Disability,” in J.D. Loeser, S.D. Butler, C.R. Chapman, and D.C. Turk, eds., Bonica's Management of Pain, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001): 342-362.

J.P. Robinson, “Evaluation of Function and Disability,” in J.D. Loeser, S.D. Butler, C.R. Chapman, and D.C. Turk, eds., Bonica's Management of Pain, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001): 342-362.)| false
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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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We relied on this conceptual ambiguity in the rationale we provided for assessing pain-related impairment in Chapter 18 of the Guides 5th. That is, we reasoned that since severity of impairment could be measured by the extent to which an individual's ability to perform ADLs was diminished, limitations associated with pain could be combined with limitations imposed by derangement of organs or body parts (i.e., by impairment in the usual sense) to determine the overall severity of the individual's impairment. On further reflection, however, we believe that the meaning of “impairment” should be circumscribed, so that it refers only to derangement of organs or body parts. Pain and other subjective experiences of individuals cannot be construed as contributors to impairment when this narrower construction of “impairment” is used.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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G. Schlesinger, “Operationalism,” in P. Edwards ed., The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 5 (New York: Macmillan, 1967): 543-547.

G. Schlesinger, “Operationalism,” in P. Edwards ed., The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. 5 (New York: Macmillan, 1967): 543-547.)| false
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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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Some monographs—including the AMA Guides—distinguish between an inability to perform fairly concrete behaviors (e.g., inability to walk) and an inability to perform social roles (e.g., inability to maintain employment). See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3; S.Z. Nagi, “Disability Concepts Revisited: Implications for Prevention,” in A.M. Pope and A.R. Tarlov, eds., Disability in America (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991):309-327; World Health Organization, International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps: A Manual of Classification Relating to the Consequences of Disease (Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1980); World Health Organization, supra note 18. The authors have called the former “functional limitations” or “activity limitations', and have reserved the term “disability” for an inability to perform social roles such as work. We believe that the key distinction is between limitations at the level of organs/body parts and limitations in activities at a whole person level, and that the term “disability” should be used to describe the latter limitations. Thus, we view both limitations in the ability to work and limitations in the ability to perform concrete activities as types of disability. We note that this is the way “disability” is routinely used in biomedical research. See P.C. McAfee, I.L. Fedder, S. Saiedy, E.M. Shucosky, B.W. Cunningham, and S.B. Charite, “Disc Replacement: Report of 60 Prospective Randomized Cases in a U.S. Center,” Spine 28 Suppl (2003): 424-33; R.A. Deyo, M. Battie, A.J. Beurskens, C. Bombardier, P. Croft, B. Koes, A. Malmivaara, M. Roland, M. Von Korff, and G. Wad-dell, “Outcome Measures for Low Back Pain Research. A Proposal for Standardized Use,” Spine 23 (1998): 2003-13.

Some monographs—including the AMA Guides—distinguish between an inability to perform fairly concrete behaviors (e.g., inability to walk) and an inability to perform social roles (e.g., inability to maintain employment). See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3; S.Z. Nagi, “Disability Concepts Revisited: Implications for Prevention,” in A.M. Pope and A.R. Tarlov, eds., Disability in America (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991):309-327; World Health Organization, International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps: A Manual of Classification Relating to the Consequences of Disease (Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1980); World Health Organization, supra note 18. The authors have called the former “functional limitations” or “activity limitations', and have reserved the term “disability” for an inability to perform social roles such as work. We believe that the key distinction is between limitations at the level of organs/body parts and limitations in activities at a whole person level, and that the term “disability” should be used to describe the latter limitations. Thus, we view both limitations in the ability to work and limitations in the ability to perform concrete activities as types of disability. We note that this is the way “disability” is routinely used in biomedical research. See P.C. McAfee, I.L. Fedder, S. Saiedy, E.M. Shucosky, B.W. Cunningham, and S.B. Charite, “Disc Replacement: Report of 60 Prospective Randomized Cases in a U.S. Center,” Spine 28 Suppl (2003): 424-33; R.A. Deyo, M. Battie, A.J. Beurskens, C. Bombardier, P. Croft, B. Koes, A. Malmivaara, M. Roland, M. Von Korff, and G. Wad-dell, “Outcome Measures for Low Back Pain Research. A Proposal for Standardized Use,” Spine 23 (1998): 2003-13.)| false
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International Labour Office, The Evaluation of Permanent Incapacity for Work in Social Insurance. [Studies and Reports Series M #13]. (Washington D.C.: The International Labour Office, 1937).

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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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R.J. Butler, “Workers' Compensation Concepts and Economics,” in T.G. Mayer, R.J. Gatchel, and P.B. Polatin, eds., Occupational Musculoskeletal Disorders (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000): 9-23.; J.D. Loeser, S.E. Henderlite, and D.E Conrad, “Incentive Effects of Workers' Compensation Benefits: A Literature Synthesis,” Medical Care Research and Review 52, no. 1 (1995): 34-59.

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See McAfee et. al. and Deyo et. al., supra note 30.

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Social Security Administration Office of Research, Evaluation and Statistics. Social Security programs in the United States. [SSA Publication No. 13-11758]. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997).

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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.)| false
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See Cocchiarella and Andersson, supra note 3.

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W.E. Fordyce, “Environmental Factors in the Genesis of Low Back Pain,” in J.J. Bonica, J. Liebeskind, and D. Albe-Fessard D, eds., Advances in Pain Research and Therapy, Vol. 3 (New York: Raven Press; 1979): 659-666.

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M.E. Cox, S. Asselin, S.A. Gracovetsky, M.P. Richards, N.M. Newman, V. Karakusevic, L. Zhong, J.N. Fogel, “Relationship between Functional Evaluation Measures and Self-assessment in Nonacute Low Back Pain,”Spine 25 (2000): 1817-1826.; R.A. Deyo, G. Andersson, C. Bombardier, D.C. Cherkin, R.B. Keller, C.K. Lee, M.H. Liang, B. Lipscomb, P. Shekelle, K.F. Spratt KF, et. al. “Outcome Measures for Studying Patients with Low Back Pain,” Spine 19 (1994): 2032S-2036S.; C.E. Lee, M.J. Simmonds, D.M. Novy, S. Jones, “Self-reports and Clinician-measured Physical Function among Patients with Low Back Pain: A Comparison,” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 82 (2001): 227-231; R. Severeijns, J.W.S. Vlaeyen, M.A. van den Hout, and W.E.J. Weber, “Pain Catastrophizing Predicts Pain Intensity, Disability, and Psychological Distress Independent of the Level of Physical Impairment,” Clinical Journal of Pain 17 (2001): 165-172; G. Waddell, “A New Clinical Model for the Treatment of Low-back Pain,” Spine 12 (1987): 632-44; S.D. Boden, D.O. Davis, T.S. Dina, N.J. Patronas, S.W. Wiesel, “Abnormal Magnetic-resonance Scans of the Lumbar Spine in Asymptomatic Subjects,” The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, American Volume 72-A (1990): 403-408; M.C. Jensen, M.N. Brant-Zawadski, N. Obuchowski, M.T. Modic, D. Malkasian, J.S. Ross, “Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Lumbar Spine in People with Back Pain,” New Engl J Med 331 (1994): 69-73; N. Boos, N. Semmer, A. Elfering, V. Schade, I. Gal, M. Zanetti, R. Kissling, N. Buchegger, J. Hodler, and C.J. Main, “Natural History of Individuals with Asymptomatic Disc Abnormalities in Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” Spine 25 (2000): 1482-1492; D.G. Borenstein, J.W. O'Mara Jr, S.D. Boden, W.C. Lauerman, A. Jacobson, C. Platenberg, D. Schellinger, and S.W. Wiesel, “The Value of Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Lumbar Spine to Predict Low-back Pain in Asymptomatic Subjects: A Seven-year Follow-up Study,” The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, American Volume 83-A (2001): 1306-11; S.W. Wiesel, N. Tsourmas, H. Feffer, C.M. Citrin, and N. Patronas, N., “A Study of Computer-assisted tomography: 1. The Incidence of Positive CAT Scans in an Asymptomatic Group of Patients,” Spine 9 (1984): 549-551; J.J. Jarvik, W. Hollingworth, P. Heagerty, D.R. Haynor, and R.A. Deyo, “The Longitudinal Assessment of Imaging and Disability of the Back (LAIDBack) Study: Baseline Data,” Spine 26 (2001):1158-1166.)| false
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See Cocchiarella et. al. and Robinson et. al., supra note 4.

See Spieler et. al. and Rondinelli and Duncan, supra note 5

See Nagi, supra note 30.

See World Health Organization, 1980, supra note 30.

See World Health Organization, 1980, supra note 30.)| false
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See World Health Organization, 2001, supra note 18.

See World Health Organization, 2001, supra note 18.)| false
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