Chapter 12: The Visual System

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World Health Organization. ICF: International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2001. ICIDH and its successor, ICF, are companion classifications to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The ICD classifies diseases and disorders, but ICF and ICIDH classify their functional consequences.

World Health Organization. ICF: International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2001. ICIDH and its successor, ICF, are companion classifications to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The ICD classifies diseases and disorders, but ICF and ICIDH classify their functional consequences.)| false
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World Health Organization. International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (ICD-9, 1977), and 10th Revision (ICD-10, 1994). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1977, 1994.)| false
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International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision: Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). 1st ed. Ann Arbor, Mich: Commission on Professional and Hospital Activities; 1978. Later editions: Washington, DC: US Public Health Service; 1980, and others. ICD-9 and ICD-10 are used for international statistical reporting. ICD-9-CM is the official US health care classification required for all diagnostic reporting. ICD-9-CM follows ICD-9 but contains additional detail. The impairment ranges used in this chapter are based on ICD-9-CM.

International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision: Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM).1st ed.Ann Arbor, Mich: Commission on Professional and Hospital Activities; 1978. Later editions: Washington, DC: US Public Health Service; 1980, and others. ICD-9 and ICD-10 are used for international statistical reporting. ICD-9-CM is the official US health care classification required for all diagnostic reporting. ICD-9-CM follows ICD-9 but contains additional detail. The impairment ranges used in this chapter are based on ICD-9-CM.)| false
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Workgroup for the International Society for Low Vision Research and Rehabilitation. Guide for the Evaluation of Visual Impairment. San Francisco, Calif: Pacific Vision Foundation; 1999. Available as PDF at: www.ski.org/Colenbrander. Accessed May, 2007.)| false
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International Council of Ophthalmology (ICO). Visual Standards, Aspects and Ranges of Vision Loss with Emphasis on Population Studies. Melbourne, Australia: ICO; 2002. Available as PDF at: www.icoph.org/standards. Accessed May 2007.

International Council of Ophthalmology (ICO). Visual Standards, Aspects and Ranges of Vision Loss with Emphasis on Population Studies. Melbourne, Australia: ICO; 2002. Available as PDF at: www.icoph.org/standards. Accessed May 2007.)| false
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World Health Organization. Consultation on Development of Standards for the Characterization of Vision Loss and Visual Functioning. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/PBL/03.91; 2003. Available as PDF at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2003/WHO_PBL_03.91.pdf. Accessed May 2007.

World Health Organization. Consultation on Development of Standards for the Characterization of Vision Loss and Visual Functioning. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO/PBL/03.91; 2003. Available as PDF at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2003/WHO_PBL_03.91.pdf. Accessed May 2007.)| false
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Fuhr PSW, Holmes LD, Fletcher DC, et al.The AMA Guides Functional Vision Score is a better predictor of vision-targeted quality of life than traditional measures of visual acuity or visual field extent. Vis Impairment Res. 2003;5(3):137–146.

Fuhr PSW, Holmes LD, Fletcher DC, et al.The AMA Guides Functional Vision Score is a better predictor of vision-targeted quality of life than traditional measures of visual acuity or visual field extent. Vis Impairment Res. 2003;5(3):137–146.)| false
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Colenbrander A. The visual system. In: Cocchiarella L, Lord SJ, eds. Master the AMA Guides. Chicago, Ill: American Medical Association; 2001: chap 12.

Colenbrander A. The visual system. In: Cocchiarella L, Lord SJ, eds. Master the AMA Guides. Chicago, Ill: American Medical Association; 2001: chap 12.)| false
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Colenbrander A. The visual system. In: Demeter SL, Anderson GBJ, eds. Disability Evaluation. 2nd ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby (Elsevier Science); 2003: chap 36.

Colenbrander A. The visual system. In: Demeter SL, Anderson GBJ, eds. Disability Evaluation. 2nd ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby (Elsevier Science); 2003: chap 36.)| false
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Doyle D, Hanks GWC, MacDonald N, eds. Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1993:109.)| false
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Sloan LL. New test charts for the measurement of visual acuity at far and near distances. Am J Ophthalmol. 1959;48:807–813. Louise Sloan introduced the name M-unit to identify letter size based on Snellen's formula.

Sloan LL. New test charts for the measurement of visual acuity at far and near distances. Am J Ophthalmol. 1959;48:807–813. Louise Sloan introduced the name M-unit to identify letter size based on Snellen's formula.)| false
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Bailey IL, Lovie JE. New design principles for visual acuity letter charts. Am J Optom Physiol Ophthalmol. 1976;53:740–745. Bailey and Lovie introduced the proportionally spaced layout with 5 letters per line that is now the standard.

Bailey IL, Lovie JE. New design principles for visual acuity letter charts. Am J Optom Physiol Ophthalmol. 1976;53:740–745. Bailey and Lovie introduced the proportionally spaced layout with 5 letters per line that is now the standard.)| false
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National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Committee on Vision, Report of Working Group 39. Recommended standard procedures for the clinical measurement and specification of visual acuity. Adv Ophthalmol. 1980;41:103–148.)| false
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Ferris FL, Kassov A, Bresnick GH, Bailey I. New visual acuity charts for clinical research. Am J Ophthalmol. 1982;94:91–96.)| false
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National Eye Institute. Measurement Guidelines for Collaborative Studies. Bethesda, Md: National Eye Institute; 1982. The NEI (ETDRS) guidelines combined the Sloan letter set with the Bailey-Lovie layout and thus created the de facto international standard for visual acuity measurement. The NEI rules specify a rating system similar to the Visual Acuity Score.

National Eye Institute. Measurement Guidelines for Collaborative Studies. Bethesda, Md: National Eye Institute; 1982. The NEI (ETDRS) guidelines combined the Sloan letter set with the Bailey-Lovie layout and thus created the de facto international standard for visual acuity measurement. The NEI rules specify a rating system similar to the Visual Acuity Score.)| false
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International Council of Ophthalmology. Visual acuity measurement standard (approved 1984). Ital J Ophthalmol. 1988;II/I:1–12. Available as PDF at: www.icoph.org/standards. Accessed May 2007.)| false
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Colenbrander A. Visual acuity measurement for low vision. In: Kooiman AC, et al, eds. Low Vision: Research and New Developments in Rehabilitation. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press; 1994:542–551.

Colenbrander A. Visual acuity measurement for low vision. In: Kooiman AC, et al, eds. Low Vision: Research and New Developments in Rehabilitation. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press; 1994:542–551.)| false
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Low Vision Test Chart. One side: letter chart from 50 M to 1 M (acuity: 1/50, 20/1000 to 1/1, 20/20), 1 m cord attached. Other side: reading segments from 10 M to 0.6 M, diopter ruler included, standardized segments for reading rate measurements. Reading segments are available in English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, German, Dutch, Finnish, Swedish, and Tagalog. Precision Vision, 944 First St, LaSalle, IL 61301. Fax: 812-223-2224; e-mail: precisionvision@mindspring.com.

Low Vision Test Chart. One side: letter chart from 50 M to 1 M (acuity: 1/50, 20/1000 to 1/1, 20/20), 1 m cord attached. Other side: reading segments from 10 M to 0.6 M, diopter ruler included, standardized segments for reading rate measurements. Reading segments are available in English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, German, Dutch, Finnish, Swedish, and Tagalog. Precision Vision, 944 First St, LaSalle, IL 61301. Fax: 812-223-2224; e-mail: precisionvision@mindspring.com.)| false
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Colenbrander A. Dimensions of visual performance–Low Vision Symposium. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1977;83:332–337.)| false
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Colenbrander A. Measuring vision and vision loss. In: Tasman W, Jaeger EA, eds. Duane's Clinical Ophthalmology. Vol 5. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001: chap 51.

Colenbrander A. Measuring vision and vision loss. In: Tasman W, Jaeger EA, eds. Duane's Clinical Ophthalmology.Vol 5. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001: chap 51.)| false
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Colenbrander A. The Functional Vision Score: A coordinated scoring system for visual impairments, disabilities, and handicaps. In: Kooiman AC, et al, eds. Low Vision: Research and New Developments in Rehabilitation. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press; 1994:552–561.

Colenbrander A. The Functional Vision Score: A coordinated scoring system for visual impairments, disabilities, and handicaps. In: Kooiman AC, et al, eds. Low Vision: Research and New Developments in Rehabilitation. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press; 1994:552–561.)| false
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Langelaan M, Wouters B, Moll AC, de Boer MR, van Rens GHMB. Functional Field Score: the Effect of using a Goldmann V-4e instead of a Goldmann II-4e isopter. Invest. Ophth. and Vis. Sc. 2006, 47 (5); 1817–1823.

Langelaan M, Wouters B, Moll AC, de Boer MR, van Rens GHMB. Functional Field Score: the Effect of using a Goldmann V-4e instead of a Goldmann II-4e isopter. Invest. Ophth. and Vis. Sc. 2006, 47 (5); 1817–1823.)| false
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American Medical Association. Impairment Calculator [computer program]. Chicago, Ill: American Medical Association; 2004.

American Medical Association. Impairment Calculator [computer program]. Chicago, Ill: American Medical Association; 2004.)| false
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Colenbrander A, Lieberman MF, Schainholz DC. Preliminary implementation of the functional vision score on the Humphrey field analyzer: Proceedings of the International Perimetric Society, Kyoto, Japan, 1992. In: Mills RP, ed. Perimetry Update 1992/1993. The Hague, The Netherlands: Kugler Publications; 1993:487–496.Page intentionally left blank. Page intentionally left blank.

Colenbrander A, Lieberman MF, Schainholz DC. Preliminary implementation of the functional vision score on the Humphrey field analyzer: Proceedings of the International Perimetric Society, Kyoto, Japan, 1992. In: Mills RP, ed. Perimetry Update 1992/1993. The Hague, The Netherlands: Kugler Publications; 1993:487–496. Page intentionally left blank. Page intentionally left blank. )| false
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